Role+of+coaches

=** THE ROLE OF COACHES **= = = A coach's sense of self-efficacy has a major impact on the performance of a team A good coach can effectively increase individual and collective efficacy



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Trait theory [] Leadership history [] Two Stogdill studies []

"Great Man" Theory

Stogdill (1948)

Evaluation: Individual v Situation Validity (supporting research) Reductionism Determinism

Stogdill (1948) Chelladurai (1978)

Evaluation: Usefulness Nature / Nurture Reductionism Ethnocentrism

Also: Chelladurai & Saleh research Martin et al research LSS Feidler's Contingency Theory (1967) Vroom & Yetton (1973) Decision making Hershey & Blanchard (1969) Maturity of group members

[|Team captains perceptions of leadership] [|Overview of Multidimensional Model of Leadership]

Smith et al (1977)

Evaluation: Reliability Methodology Validity Ethics Sample

[|Coaching the Coaches Overview] [|Coaching the Coaches] [|Coach Effectiveness Training] [|Martin's Research on Effective Coaching Behaviors]

//A Level Psychology Through Diagrams//, Grahame Hill, Oxford University Press (2001), page 270

The coach plays an important role in both individual and team performance. //**Horn (1985)**// found that a **//coach's feedback can have a positive effect on athletes' self-perceptions of competence and expectations of success//**. **//Chase et al. (1997)//** studied the effect of a coach's sense of self-efficacy on his or her players. In a study of four collegiate women's basketball teams, they **//found that the coaches' sense of self-efficacy had a major effect on the anxiety and concentration-dependent performance (e.g., free throws and turnovers) of the team//**. The higher the coach's sense of self-efficacy, the better the performance of the team players.

A **//coach's expectations//** regarding the ability of the individual athlete can determine the level of achievement each athlete will ultimately reach. In other words, if the coach thinks you cannot do it, you might not be able to—it becomes a **//self-fulfilling prophecy//**. To explain this process, **//Horn and Lox (1993)//** proposed the **//expectation-performance model (self-fulfilling prophecy)://** Rosenthal (1974) identified the **//important role of feedback in self-fulfilling prophecies//**. Feedback refers to the verbal information a coach gives an athlete regarding ability or performance. Studies revealed that coaches provide athletes with different types and amounts of feedback, based on expectations of ability (Rejeski et al. 1979; Solomon et al. 1996).
 * Step 1: the coach develops an **//expectation for each athlete//**.
 * Step 2: these expectations influence the **//coach's treatment of individual athletes (coach behavior)//**
 * Step 3: the coach's treatment **//affects the athlete's performance/behavior//**, learning, self-concept, aspirations, and achievement motivation.
 * Step 4: the **//athlete's behavior and performance conform to the coach's expectations, thus reinforcing the coach's expectations//** (and coach continues to behave the same way)

**//Low expectations of coaches may have adverse effects on athletes.//** Athletes most often demonstrate poor performance when they are consistently given less effective and intensive instruction, and less active time in drills. The coach's behavior can negatively affect an athlete's self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation so that the athlete experiences anxiety and self-doubt. **//A//**t**hletes use a coach's feedback to determine how competent they are.**

According to **//Duda and Pensgaard (2002),//** there are several ways in which **//coaches can improve intrinsic motivation//**:
 * focus on instruction and emphasize the link between improved technique and success
 * facilitate group goal-setting
 * give personal feedback
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">acknowledge that athletes can make mistakes
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">treat all athletes as equally important

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">It is difficult to manipulate variables in an ecologically valid way. It is impossible to isolate the behaviour of the coach as the sole reason for an athlete's performance or motivation. **//Garda-Bengoechea (2003)//** carried out a study that indicates that peers may have just as strong an effect on an athlete's motivation and performance as the coach. Twelve athletes—six female and six male, aged 13 to 17 years, representing a variety of individual and team sports and competitive levels—took part in two in-depth, semi-structured, one-on-one interviews about their perceptions of the influence of others on their sport motivation. Through an inductive content analysis, the researchers found that the athletes felt that peers were just as important as coaches in their motivation. **//Slavin (1995)//** argues that a key **//responsibility of coaches is to facilitate a "community of cooperative learners".//** Athletes not only benefit from, the coach's expertise, but can also learn from and help each other. The results of Garcfa-Bengoechea's study also show that coaches need to consider the internal dynamics of the team in order to facilitate an environment where athletes engage in positive interaction and provide support for each other.
 * //Evaluation://**

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Research also suggests that it is **//important for coaches to deal efficiently with teammates who display a negative attitude towards their peers, themselves, and the activity//**. **//Wild and Enzle (2002)//** demonstrated the **//role of// //social contagion// //in affecting team motivation//** = motivational attitudes can spread from person to person during the social interaction of practice. It is important to note that although peers play a central role in the sport motivation of adolescent athletes, the motivational impact of parents and coaches is not necessarily decreased.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">In order for athletes **//to maintain intrinsic motivation for sport, they must have access to an interrelated network of people who fulfill a number of motivational functions//** (e.g. providing support and competence-related information), **//and who play a variety of motivational roles//** (e.g. models to emulate and agents of socialization of achievement orientations).