Models+of+causes+and+prevention+of+burnout

=** MODELS OF CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF BURNOUT **= = =

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 * //Burnout //**= psychological, emotional and physical withdrawal from a previously enjoyable activity (Smith 1986)

Physiological symptoms = irritability, fatigue, sleep problems, exhaustion (loss of energy or interest), decreased performance Cognitive symptoms = feelings of failure or depression, and lowered self-esteem
 * Also, perhaps //depersonalization// (detachment from the sport and a feeling of "why am I doing this?)
 * And //devaluation// (when they no longer find any worth in the activity) - **//Raedeke and Smith//** (2001) found that when **//depersonalization is more common in coaches and teachers; athletes tend to devalue the activity//.**


 * //IMPORTANT//**: not all athletes who drop out of sport are burned out (one of the problems of studying burnout) - many other reasons why someone may discontinue sporting activities, and often athletes stay in a sport despite burnout (scholarships or the expectations of parents/coach)

Cognitive – affective stress model (Smith) (cognitive level of analysis)

Situation demands – high demands result in stress

Cognitive appraisal – athlete's interpretation of the situation

Physiological symptoms – irritability, fatigue, sleep problems (biological level of analysis)

Hardiness is a key factor: 3 elements of hardiness:


 * 1) control – the perceived ability of the individual to exert influence
 * 2) commitment – refusal to give up
 * 3) challenge – ability to grow

Stress inoculation theory (Meichenbaum) – athlete learns how to cope with stress:


 * 1) conceptualization stage – made aware of the effects of positive and negative thoughts, self-talk
 * 2) rehearsal stage – learns coping skills
 * 3) the application stage – athletes practise their coping skills in low-stress situations, gradually progress to moderate and high-stress situations. (cognitive level of analysis)


 * //Cognitive-Affective Stress mode //// l, Smith (1986) //**proposed a model to explain the origins of burnout. The **//key to his model//** = way in which an athlete interprets stress, failure, and/or setbacks (cognitive). Both the personality of the athlete and their motivational orientation may affect their interpretation.
 * First stage of the model is what Smith called **//situation demands//** = the high demands on an athlete result in stress. Stress often occurs because demands exceed resources.
 * Next stage is **//cognitive appraisal//** = athlete's interpretation of the situation demands (do they see the stressor as a challenge that they are optimistic they will be able to meet, or are they anxious and fearful that failure will reflect poorly on their identity as an athlete?)
 * Third stage, **//physiological responses//**. In cases that lead to burnout, includes muscle tension, irritability, fatigue, and sleep disruption.
 * If the stress is not managed, the final stage exhibits **//behavioural responses//** = e.g., decreased performance, problems with other team members, and eventual withdrawal from the team.

Elements of hardiness:
 * //'Hardiness' is a key factor, (Kobasa 1986) //**
 * Control = the perceived ability of the individual to exert influence
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Commitment = refusal to give up
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Challenge = ability to grow

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**//Clough and Earle (2001)//** = model of mental toughness in sport - developed a questionnaire to assess mental toughness which they have used in the following experiment. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">AIM: to show how mental toughness was related to performance and cognitive appraisal. METHODOLOGY: experiment <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">SAMPLE SET: Twenty-three volunteers classified as having either high or low mental toughness, based on their responses to the questionnaire - performed 30-minute static cycling trials at three different intensities, of 30, 50, and 70 per cent of their maximum oxygen uptake, rating the physical demands of the trials at 5-minute intervals. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">FINDINGS: those with higher levels of mental toughness reported significantly lower perceived exertion at 70 per cent of maximum than reported by the "less tough" participants - consistent with the cliche that "when the going gets tough, the tough get going". The observed 337 differences at higher levels of exertion could reflect a tendency of the more tough-minded to somehow reduce the perception of strain. //Mentally tough exercisers might perceive themselves as having greater control during such conditions, or interpret the higher intensity as a challenge rather than a threat//.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**//Coakley (1992)//** argues that //stress is a symptom and not a cause of burnout//. The cause is the hierarchical nature of high-performance sport, and. its effect on the identity and sense of control in young athletes. He argues that young athletes do not develop a normal identity because they do not spend enough time with peers outside of the sport environment. Their identity is limited to success in sport, so experience of injury or lack of success can then lead to burnout. Athletes also feel a lack of control over decision making, since so much of their performance may be dictated by coaches or team captains. The inability to make decisions means that the athlete does not see alternatives, and thus may not be able to handle the stressors.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Sport psychologists and coaches (involved in daily training) investigate causes of burnout and ways to prevent it / complex issue. //**<span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) **//<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> = widely used not only in sport psychology and workplace.
 * //<span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Preventing burnout //**

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Research <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**//Raedeke et al (2002)//** swimming coaches identification of burnout signs and possible prevention strategies <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">AIM: researchers wanted to find out how coaches identified burnout signs and what they used as prevention strategies. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">METHODOLGY: used a qualitative approach with semi-structured interviews and conducted content analysis of the transcripts. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">SAMPLE SET: interviewed 13 US swimming coaches and argued that if coaches are able to identify early signs of burnout, they can prevent it. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">FINDINGS: some **//signs of burnout//** identified by coaches:
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Withdrawal, e.g., not showing up for training and stopping interaction with teammates.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Reduced sense of accomplishment, e.g., feeling incongruence between physical ability and desired goals. Lack of improvement could be one of the first warning signs. This could be in general, or it may be frustration where the swimmer is not able to make progress after injury.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Diminished sense of progress, e.g., if swimmers believe that they can not achieve beyond a certain point (unrealistic expectations of performance, perceptions of diminished rewards from swimming perhaps combined with unfavourable comparison with other swimmers) It could also be because they are physically and psychologically exhausted.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Devaluation of the sport is a sure sign of possible burnout. Devaluation could range from hatred of general detachment from the sport.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Exhaustion is very critical to burnout because it reflects a state where physical and psychological resources have dried up, either because the athletes have pushed themselves too hard or because of external pressure.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Pressure—external and self-pressure—to succeed can lead to burnout, especially pressure from parents and coaches. The coaches in the investigation mentioned parental pressure as a key factor in burnout but self-pressure as seen in the overly motivated athletes who are very hard on themselves is also a source of burnout.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Loss of control is a feeling that athletes have when there is not a healthy balance between doing the sport and "having a life". It can lead to negative self-perception if there is only focus on the sport.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Being able to identify early signs of burnout in an athlete is the first step to prevent it.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Coaches in the study also mentioned that goal-setting sessions with all the swimmers reinforced individual commitment and enhanced support within the group. For adolescent swimmers there were special problems because this is a time of finding an adult identity and focusing on relationships with peers. There is also the problem that some of the support structures tend to dry up (e.g. parental enthusiasm) when the child has been competing for many years. However, parental support and recognition are important to prevent burnout in young athletes. According to the coaches in this study, because serious competition demands greater time commitment from the swimmer. Lack of support can lead to a feeling of lack of accomplishment which couid eventually result in burnout.


 * //<span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Raedeke et al (2002) //**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> found that the following coach **//strategies could prevent burnou////t//**:
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Create a supportive training environment - e.g., be empathetic and giving individualized feedback, and encouraging team cohesion and friendship in the group / important to involve parents.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Keep training exciting and fun.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Be flexible and give athletes time off from swimming to prevent them feeling fed up with the sport.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Help athletes set realistic but challenging **//goals//** and provide a number of training techniques, e.g., emphasizing quality over quantity.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The most important strategy is to **//provide support structures that include support from the coach, the team, and the parents, as well as continued recognition of achievement//**. The coach should be empathetic and listen to the individual athletes and encourage team friendship, cohesion, and support. This is particularly important when the athletes are young. This can be done by keeping the young athletes with their age group and not pushing them ahead when they are talented.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**//Recommendations to coaches to help athletes avoid burnout//**:
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Identifying symptoms of burnout early so that they can be addressed; encouraging open communication and the expression of feelings of frustration, anxiety, and disappointment; and setting short-term goals for competitions and practice.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Use of relaxation techniques to cope with stress - lowers the level of stress that an individual experiences - may also lower one's risk for injury and decrease the chances of engaging in substance abuse.


 * //<span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Cognitive affective stress management Smith (1980) //**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> proposed an integrated approach of mental and physical coping strategies to deal with stress (parallels his cognitive-affective stress model of burnout - four steps:
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**//Pre-treatment assessment//**: A consultant conducts personal interviews to assess the situations that produce stress, the player's response to stress, and the effects of stress on performance.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**//Treatment rationale//**: The consultant helps the player understand his/her stress response by analysing stress reactions.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**//Skill acquisition//**: The athlete is trained in muscular relaxation, cognitive restructuring, and self-instruction. Muscular relaxation is progressive relaxation, in which muscle groups are first tensed, then relaxed. Cognitive restructuring identifies irrational or stress-inducing self-statements like, "J know I'll mess up", "I can't let my coach down", or "If I am not successful, I am not worth anything". Self-instruction provides athletes with the means to improve concentration and problem-solving skills—-for example, "Don't think about how far behind we are, just think about what you have to do", or "Take a deep breath and relax".
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**//Skill rehearsa////l//**: The consultant induces high levels of arousal/ stress through film and imaginary rehearsals, in order to practise the coping strategies.

//**<span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Stress Inoculation Theory (SIT) Meichenbaum (1985) **//<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">proposed an alternative approach = athlete is exposed to and learns how to cope with stress in increasing amounts, thereby enhancing immunity to stress. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">There are three stages.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**//Conceptualization stage//**: made aware of the effects of positive and negative thoughts, self-talk, and imagery.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**//Rehearsal stage//**: learns such coping skills as imagery and positive self-statements.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**//Application stage//**: Athletes practice their coping skills in low-stress situations, gradually progressing to moderate- and high-stress situations.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Goal of SIT is to help athletes develop a sense of "learned resourcefulness". They learn to prepare for a stressor: "It is going to be rough; keep your cool." They learn to control and handle the stressor: "Keep your cool because he is losing it." They cope with feelings of being overwhelmed: "Keep focused—what next?" And then they evaluate their coping efforts: "Wow—you handled that well!"