Techniques+for+skill+development+used+in+sport

=** TECHNIQUES USED FOR SKILL DEVELOPMENT USED IN SPORT **=

[|Review of sports psych principles applied to tennis matches] [|How They Train video series (Time Magazine Winter Olympics)]

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 * IMAGERY **
 * Mental imagery (MI) is the mental rehearsal of movements without overt execution. Brain imaging techniques have made it possible to identify the brain regions that are activated during MI and, for voluntary motor tasks involving hand and finger movements, to make direct comparison with those areas activated during actual movement. (biological level of analysis) (biological level of analysis)
 * MI refers to all those quasi-sensory or quasi-perceptual experiences of which we are self-consciously aware, and which exist for us in the absence of those stimulus conditions that are known to produce their genuine sensory or perceptual counterparts, and which may be expected to have different consequences from their sensory or perceptual counterparts (Richardson, 1969)
 * Research is diverse and can include descriptive and experimental studies using qualitative and quantitative methods
 * Use the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ) to assess the frequency with which athletes use images representative of imagery categories
 * Paivio (1985) was that imagery mediates behavior through either cognitive or motivational mechanisms, which affect specific or general response systems. //**Hall’s Applied Model of Imagery Use in Sport**//: **Cognitive Specific** imagery (CS) was proposed to consist primarily of images of skills. Most of the mental practice literature deals with imagery of this type. **Co** **gnitive General** (CG) referred to the use of imagery to develop cognitive plans for athletic events; for example, the strategies that could be used. Images classified as **Motivation Specific** (MS) were thought to serve a motivational role when reinforcers are rare. Thus, MS imagery represents specific goals and goal-oriented behaviors such as imagining oneself winning an event, standing on a podium receiving a medal, and being congratulated by other athletes for a good performance. **Motivation General-Mastery** (MG-M: which represented effective coping and mastery of challenging situations, such as imagining being mentally tough, confident, and focused during sport competition), and **MG-Arousal** (MG-A: which focused upon emotional and somatic experiences in sport like feelings of relaxation, stress, arousal, and anxiety).
 * Four constructs were identified for the model: (a) the sport situation, (b) the function of imagery used, (c) the outcomes associated with imagery use, and (d) imagery ability. The model indicates that in various sport situations, the function of imagery to be used should match the desired outcome. However, researchers suggest individual differences, specifically imagery ability, may moderate the link between imagery use and outcome.
 * Results of SIQ use obtained so far are mixed; some are supportive and others not (Murphy et al., 2006). The bottom line seems to be that both the SIQ and the applied model of imagery use have severe limitations and have been justly criticized.
 * The most likely explanation for the inconsistent and non-supportive findings regarding imagery content, type, function, and outcome is the conceptual confusion pertaining to the imagery terms; over time the line between image content, type and function has blurred.
 * This “content,” “types,” and “functions” distinction is of utmost importance because the terms differ in meaning. Interestingly, from a theoretical perspective, it has been known for years that any given image can serve one or several functions, and that this would depend on the meaning that image holds for an individual (Ahsen, 1984).
 * Short et al. (2004) using the SIQ showed that different athletes used the same image for different functions, and that a single image had multiple functions for a single athlete. In particular, they identified five particularly “troublesome” items where the athletes’ perceptions were not concordant with the SIQ designation for the image.
 * Short and Zostautas (2006) who showed that skill level (low, medium and high ability swimmers and high school, college, and professional hockey players, respectively) influenced concordance findings. In all of these studies, when there were differences between the athletes’ perceptions and the SIQ categories, most of the image content was perceived by the athletes as being motivational, and most often MG-M imagery.
 * Murphy et al. (2006), //imagery type// should be used to denote the actual //content// of an image (e.g., seeing oneself performing a dive, feeling oneself executing a penalty kick). //Imagery function// should refer to the purpose or reason why an athlete employs an image (e.g., to enhance motivation, to learn a skill). //Imagery outcome// should indicate the end result of the imagery process (e.g. enhanced motivation, improved skill level). When defined in this manner, imagery content is what is included in each of the items on the SIQ.
 * Instead of being a measure that assesses how often an athlete uses imagery for certain functions, it is only a measure of the frequency with which athletes use certain types of images.
 * Another concern related to SIQ concerns the number of subscales it includes. Some researchers have argued that the complex processes of imagery cannot be neatly separated into one of the five “functions” of the SIQ as proposed.
 * Another concern is the use of the umbrella term “motivation.” The images that are considered motivational in type on the SIQ do not accurately reflect how most sport psychology researchers conceptualize motivation. The term “motivation” is used to refer to “the hypothetical construct used to describe the internal and/or external forces that produce the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of behavior” (Vallerand & Thill, 1993, p. 18). However, in the SIQ, the motivational images contain content that reflect confidence, arousal, anxiety and goals. These could all be separate subscales on the SIQ.
 * Imagery direction was one of the first characteristics studied in sport research. Positive imagery was equated with positive outcomes, and negative imagery was equated with negative outcomes. Some studies showed that imagery direction had no effect on performance (e.g., Epstein, 1980; Meyers, Schleser, Cooke, & Cuvillier, 1979) while others found that positive imagery enhanced performance and negative imagery impaired performance (e.g., Powell, 1979; Shaw & Goodfellow, 1997; Short et al., 2002; Woolfolk, Parrish, & Murphy, 1985).
 * Recent studies on the direction of the SIQ images have consistently shown that some of the items were perceived by athletes as debilitative (or harmful or hurtful to performance). Short et al. (2006) were the first researchers to show that five of the items on the SIQ were actually perceived to be debilitative by at least 25% of a sample of approximately 300 athletes. Since then, their findings have been replicated with swimmers (Short & Fischer, 2006) and hockey players (Short & Zostautas, 2006), and athletes in general (Ross-Stewart & Short, 2006) - has implications for the reliability of the measure.
 * SIQ is that it only considers imagery frequency – or how often athletes use the images. Ratings are made on a 1 to 7 scale anchored by “//rarely//” and “//often.//” First, why a zero point was not included is a mystery – certainly some athletes would report not using a certain image at all. Second, there are more characteristics of imagery use that should be considered. It has already been suggested that imagery assessment needs to take into account imagery type, function, direction (debilitative/facilitative), and outcome (Murphy et al., 2006). It should be noted that imagery direction differs from imagery effectiveness (as assessed in a modification of the SIQ by Weinberg et al., 2003). []


 * SELF TALK **

Self – talk -3 types of self-talk: Positive – focused on the specific skill Instructional- focuses on the skill level of the game Negative – critical and self-defeating statements


 * REPETITION, MENTAL AND PHYSICAL **


 * ATTENTION CONTROL / CONCENTRATION TRAINING **


 * GOAL SETTING **

Visualize your races (plus a lot more) use the **Optimal Focus** (light and sound sensory input).
 * VISUALIZATION **


 * RELAXATION SKILLS **


 * STRESS / ANXIETY MANAGEMENT **

1. Deliberate practice is highly demanding mentally, requiring high levels of focus and concentration.  You’ve heard it before – no pain, no gain. But the authors also stress that you have to be “fully absorbed” in your practice for it to truly be effective. This is suggestive of the concept of 'flow'.
 * DELIBERATE PRACTICE **

2. It is designed specifically to improve performance—to strengthen it beyond its current levels.  This is the part that says you can’t just put in time and expect to get significantly better at anything – you have to consistently stretch yourself, and then stretch some more. 3. It must continue for long of periods of time.  This is Gladwell’s 10,000 hours/10 years. The authors go on to say “Basic research on expert performance suggests that the benefits it generates cannot usually be attained with less than 10 years of continued, vigorous effort (e.g., Ericsson, 2006).” 4. It must be repeated. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> Even though repetition alone won’t get you to the level of excellence, you also won’t get there without out it. Perhaps this why the word “Practice” is repeated three times in the old joke. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">5. It requires continuous feedback on results. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> Sometimes you can tell on your own whether you are doing things right. I know when I hit a wrong note on the guitar, for example. But very often this is the area where having a great teacher, coach, or mentor can make all the difference. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">6. Pre-performance preparation is essential. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> This is where goal setting comes in – you have to know where you want to go if you expect to get there. And as the authors stress, goal-setting “should involve not merely outcomes, but also the processes involved in reaching predetermined goals.” <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">7. It involves self-observation and self-reﬂection. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> As you practice, you need to be continually aware of your own performance and be focused on correcting and adapting as appropriate. This kind of in-the-moment self-assessment is critical regardless of whether a teacher is involved. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">8. It involves careful reﬂection on performance after practice sessions are completed. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> In addition to being aware of your performance as you are practicing, you need to look back on it once you are done and determine where you stand with respect to your overall goals. What might you change the next time to ensure ongoing progress? (And see my earlier thoughts on reflection as a learning habit.)

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">A common practice used by athletes (swimmers, track athletes) and coaches is the well-established technique of tapering, whereby the training volume of an athlete is drastically reduced 7-21 days pre-competition (Costill, 1985, Johns et al, 1992). This tapering is associated with many physiological alterations that have a positive impact on athletic performance.
 * <span style="background-color: #ffff00; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">TAPERING / PEAKING **


 * //<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Components of tapering //**

Costill et al (1985;1991) studied various taper schedules and found that three variables provide some insight into actual performance improvement. Tapering can be controlled through three variables:
 * 1) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">frequency of sessions per week
 * 2) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">intensity of each session, and
 * 3) <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">duration of the taper in general

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> The first common characteristic with tapering is that training is reduced in an INCREMENTAL fashion as opposed to a general training reduction (e.g., 15,000m per week to 10,000m with swimmers). Tapering has become the preferred method of the two because, as Costill et al (1991) and Johns et al (1992) demonstrated, muscular power is enhanced and performance improved significantly after 10-21 days taper with swimmers. Houmard et al (1990) demonstrated (with runners) that with a reduction in training volume to 70 per cent of normal, 5K race performance or muscular power were not improved. Research thus favours tapered training. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">A successful taper should also incorporate a drastic reduction in volume. Tapers that improve swimming performance have been found to consist of 60-90 per cent reduction in weekly training volume (Costill et al, 1985, 1991). These positive effects are thought to be primarily mediated by a recovery phenomenon from previous days or weeks of intense training (Houmard, 1991). This recuperation can only occur if training volume is drastically reduced. In distance runners, it was found that a seven-day, 62 per cent reduction in weekly training volume did not improve performance, determined by an exercise time to exhaustion test (Sheply et al, 1992). In contrast, a 90 per cent reduction in weekly training volume over seven days resulted in a 22 per cent extension in time to exhaustion. It therefore **//appears that a huge reduction in weekly training is required//** in order to recover and allow the rebound effect to occur.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**//Intensity//** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> With regard to the type of training while tapering, it commonly takes the form of interval work, with sufficient recovery in order to maximize exercise intensity (Costill et al, 1991; Johns et al, 1992). Training at an intensity of 70% VO2Max either maintained or actually worsened performance (McConnell at al, 1993). In contrast, tapers involving training at 90% VO2max improved performance (Costill et al, 1985,1991). The reasons behind this were put forward by Houmard (1991) who said that intense exercise may be necessary to maintain training-associated adaptations with the reduction in training volume during the tapering period. Intense interval work, when coupled with a reduction in training volume, may also provide a unique stimulus to the musculoskeletal system which results in adaptations conducive to improving performance.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">**//Frequency//** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> Exercise frequency is concerned with the number of sessions performed each week (Houmard and Johns, 1994). The reduction in training volume cannot be achieved at the expense of a drastic reduction in frequency. Neufer at al ( 1987) examined the effects of swim-reduced training on swimming power and blood-lactate production after submaximal exercise. Two regimes were examined: (1) 80 per cent reduction in training volume, 50 per cent in frequency, and (2) 95 per cent reduction in volume and 85 per cent in training frequency. Results of the study found that swimming power significantly decreased after only seven days and submaximal blood lactate levels increased after 28 days of either reduced-training regime. These changes were indicative of a loss of training-associated adaptations and, most likely, a decrement in performance. The reduction in training schedules here were quite dramatic. Studies in which performance-related variables were maintained or improved incorporated only a 20-50 per cent reduction (Costill et al, 1985; Sheply et al, 1992). Heart rate changes have also been reported by Houmard et al (1989), who found an increase during submaximal exercise in distance runners after a 10-day, 50 per cent reduction in training frequency. It can therefore be concluded that weekly training frequency should be reduced by no more than 50 per cent during taper. Houmard (1991) actually suggests a reduction of no more than 20 per cent. During periods of optimal performance, swimmers often refer to having 'a good feel of the water'. It is this 'feel' that is lost or reduced with too dramatic a reduction in training frequency, and for that reason I would support Houmard's suggestion of no more than 20 per cent reduction in frequency.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> **//Duration//** <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> How long should a taper programme last? Yamamoto et al (1988) compared the effects of either a 45-day or a 15-day taper on blood haematocrit and haemoglobin in national class swimmers. They observed that peak performance values were obtained seven days into the taper, and that this would be the optimum taper duration, with anything longer resulting in performance loss. Unfortunately, though, this study didn't measure actual swimming performance. Studies that did involve performance assessment with tapering have reported improvements with tapers lasting from 7-21 days (Costill et al, 1985, 1991; Houmard et al, 1994; Johns et al 1992). However, the effects of a more prolonged taper have not yet been thoroughly investigated, Houmard et al (1992) suggest a taper lasting 21 days would only maintain, rather than improve, actual performance.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">What about actual athletic performance? <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> Consistent research suggests that an improvement of 3 per cent in performance can be achieved as a result of tapering. Costill et al (1985) compared swim performance during normal training and with a 14-day taper. Swimming performance in all strokes improved by an average of 3.1 per cent with tapering. Similar results were reported again by Costill et al (1990), who assessed performance after two tapers in the same competitive season. Johns et al (1992) also demonstrated a 3 per cent improvement after a 10- and 14-day taper programme in swimmers over a variety of distances and strokes. And we must not forget the shaving down carried out by swimmers, which could also have affected performances (Sharp et al, 1988).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> In order to produce the best possible results from tapering, both coaches and swimmers need to be aware of the following factors:


 * 1) The awkward feeling associated with the first few days of tapering.
 * 2) The individuality of the taper process (this is an ABSOLUTELY VITAL consideration). Every athlete will respond to taper differently, so communication between coach and swimmer is of the utmost importance.
 * 3) Mini-tapers and retapers (throughout the season for more than one competition).
 * 4) Shaving and mental preparation.
 * 5) Realistic estimation of performance goals.

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